During the Intertestamental Period, spanning over 400 years between the Old and New Testaments, the Jewish people experienced significant national and spiritual changes that shaped the world into which Jesus Christ was born. This era, often seen as a dark period in the history of Israel and Judah, was marked by the absence of prophets or inspired writers, yet it was alive with political and intellectual ferment. The Jews faced numerous challenges and transformations under successive empires—Persian, Greek, Egyptian, Syrian, Maccabean, and Roman—each leaving a distinct imprint on their society and identity. Initially under Persian control at the close of the Old Testament, the Jewish nation saw the seat of empire shift from East to West, with Persia collapsing under Macedonian attacks led by Alexander the Great. His brief rule from 334 to 323 BC introduced a strong Hellenistic influence among the Jews, creating a divide between conservative adherents to tradition and those adopting Greek customs. Following Alexander's death, his empire fragmented, and Judah became a battleground between Egyptian and Syrian rulers, enduring harsh persecutions and cultural pressures, particularly under Antiochus Epiphanes during the Syrian period from 204 to 165 BC, who desecrated the Temple and imposed severe oppression. The Maccabean Period, from 165 to 63 BC, emerged as a time of revolt and temporary independence, with Judas Maccabaeus leading efforts to purify and rededicate the Temple. However, internal factions and external pressures persisted, culminating in Roman dominance from 63 BC into the early first century AD. Under Roman rule, Judah became a province, subject to tribute and political manipulation, with figures like Herod the Great reigning as a dependent king at the time of Christ's birth. This period saw relative peace under Augustus, facilitating communication and the spread of the Greek language, which became a common medium across the known world. Throughout these centuries, the Jewish people endured suffering and dispersion, with the other ten tribes of Israel scattering across Europe, the British Isles, and Ireland due to captivity and war. Meanwhile, in Judah, internal developments reflected the impact of historical cataclysms, fostering a heightened messianic expectation among the faithful. Literary activity flourished despite the silence of prophecy, producing works like the Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Old Testament Scriptures that made them accessible to a wider audience. These writings, while valuable for historical insight, did not carry the same authority as canonical texts. By the end of the Intertestamental Period, the world was uniquely prepared for the introduction and spread of the gospel, with Rome as the mistress of the world, interconnected by roads and unified under similar laws. The pervasive use of Greek as a common language further aided this preparation, setting the stage for the divine message to reach diverse nations. Thus, through turmoil and change, this period of over 400 years played a crucial role in shaping the historical and cultural context for the arrival of Jesus Christ.

The Intertestamental Period, spanning roughly four centuries between the Old and New Testaments, was a time of profound transformation that shaped the world into which Jesus was born. During these 400 years, Israel and Judah experienced a dark historical interval with neither prophet nor inspired writer, leaving historical records to sources like Josephus, apocryphal books, Latin historians, and scattered Greek references. This period saw the seat of empire shift from East to West, as the Persian Empire fell to Macedonian attacks under Alexander the Great, and later, the Greek Empire gave way to Roman rule. Significant world events unfolded during this time, influencing the Jewish people and preparing the stage for the Messiah's arrival. In Egypt, a succession of dynasties marked the decline of an ancient civilization, culminating in its annexation as a Roman province by 30 BC. Greece, too, saw its old glory fade through endless wars, with liberty disappearing under Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great, whose conquests reshaped the world. Meanwhile, Rome strengthened itself through ceaseless wars, becoming the mistress of the world by the close of this period, with every road leading to its capital. In Asia, the Persian Empire collapsed under Greek dominance, while religious reforms in India, China, and Persia reflected a time of political and intellectual fermentation across the globe. For the Jewish people, the Intertestamental Period is divided into six major historical phases: the Persian Period (539-334 BC), the Alexandrian Period (334-323 BC), the Egyptian Period (323-204 BC), the Syrian Period (204-165 BC), the Maccabean or Hasmonean Period (165-63 BC), and the Roman Period (63 BC onward). During the Persian Period, the Jews returned to their land under Cyrus's decree, yet faced internal strife and external oppression. The Alexandrian Period, under Alexander the Great, brought a brief but impactful interaction, with the Jews gaining favor and adopting Hellenistic influences. The Egyptian Period saw Judea under Ptolemaic rule, marked by both patronage and conflict, including the creation of the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Old Testament. The Syrian Period was a time of severe persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes, culminating in the desecration of the temple with the abomination of desolation. The Maccabean Period emerged from revolt, led by Judas Maccabaeus, resulting in the purification and rededication of the temple, celebrated as Chanukkah. Finally, the Roman Period saw Judea become a Roman province, with Herod the Great ruling under Roman authority at the time of Jesus's birth, a time when the world was at peace under Augustus, facilitating the spread of the gospel through common laws and the widespread use of the Greek language. Internally, Judaism underwent significant changes during these centuries. Persecution fueled messianic expectations, evident in the rise of apocalyptic literature, as the Jews longed for deliverance from foreign oppressors. Literary activity flourished with writings such as the Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and the Septuagint, which translated the Hebrew scriptures into Greek for the diaspora in Alexandria, making God's word accessible to a broader world. However, the Jewish focus on legalistic holiness and exclusiveness grew, leading to an increase in religious laws and the emergence of groups like the Pharisees, who emphasized strict adherence to the Torah, often losing the spirit of the law in favor of form. This spiritual shift, compounded by linguistic changes and the influence of foreign cultures, set the stage for the societal and religious context into which Jesus entered, highlighting a world prepared by divine intervention for the introduction and rapid spread of God's truth.

During the Intertestamental Period, roughly 200 years before Christ, significant religious and political developments shaped the landscape of Judaism. The Pharisees succeeded in persuading the Sadducees and other religious political parties in Jerusalem to concede that the oral law held the same value as the written Word of God. This oral law, a body of interpretations passed down through generations by scribes and priests, was intended to clarify specific situations not directly covered by Scripture. By gaining this concession, the Pharisees effectively gained control over the political and religious life of Jerusalem. The Sadducees, often wealthier businessmen and tradesmen, were more conservative and tended to adhere more closely to the written Word, disregarding the oral law in most cases. However, they were disliked by the common people due to their wealth, and their religious opinions were often held in prejudice. In contrast, the Pharisees, representing the common man, wielded greater influence among the masses and dominated the Sanhedrin, outvoting the Sadducees. This power dynamic led to the Pharisees multiplying decisions and interpretations, elevating them to the level of commandments, particularly concerning ceremonial cleanliness, which became a central focus of their religious practice.

The intertestamental period covers the history between the prophetic ministry of Malachi and that of John the Baptist. That span extends from approximately 420 BC to about AD 25, a duration of roughly 445 years. During those centuries empires such as Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Babylon, Greece, and Rome successively controlled the land bridge between Africa, Asia, and Europe. Smaller neighboring nations including Syria, Edom, Ammon, and Philistia added further pressure. Repeated conquests and the resulting wars destroyed records kept on papyrus, hides, and pottery. Earthquakes along the rift through the Dead Sea toppled buildings and ignited fires that consumed additional writings. Climate shifts brought storms, rising or falling seas, and periods of colder or warmer weather that complicated preservation. Information therefore passed mainly by oral transmission, with emphasis placed on memorization from one generation to the next. After the return from Babylonian exile the people resolved to avoid the idolatry and Sabbath breaking that had led to captivity. They formed a covenant recorded in Nehemiah 8 and 10 that stressed separation from foreign peoples, strict Sabbath observance, support of the Temple, and rigorous tithing. Those who bound themselves to this covenant became known as the Hasidim. From their practices arose the scribes and eventually the Pharisees, who expanded the original laws into an extensive body of additional rules. By approximately 165 BC the Pharisees had developed into a political party. Over the full span of the intertestamental period their emphasis on separation and external observance grew into the traditions later criticized in the New Testament.

After Malachi the Old Testament canon closes and no further words of Scripture appear for nearly five hundred years until the earliest epistles of Paul. This Intertestamental Period proved a tumultuous time for Judean Jews as empires fought over Palestine the strategic land bridge between Africa and Asia. The Persian Empire held sway over the land of Judah when Malachi wrote yet its hegemony faced challenges in Anatolia from the Greeks. The battles of Marathon Salamis Plataea and Mycale marked the end of Persian expansion into Europe. Beginning in 412 BC Darius II used political and monetary means to influence existing inter Greek rivalries. His heir Artaxerxes II and his successors kept the Greeks at bay while the Persian Empire declined amid its own infighting and rebellions. Matters changed drastically with the invasion of Greek armies under Alexander of Macedon in 334 BC. After subduing Asia Minor he turned south defeating Darius III at the Battle of Issus and taking possession of Syria and the Levantine coast. He overcame Tyre by building a causeway and put all the men to the sword. Except for Gaza the rest of Palestine capitulated including Jerusalem in 332 BC. By 330 BC he had conquered all the Persian Empire to the borders of India. Alexander died before he could set up a unifying government. After his death in June of 323 BC his empire soon fell into turmoil. Forty years of war ensued among the Diadochi before a four way division of his empire was settled with Egypt under Ptolemy Syria and the East under Seleucus Asia Minor and Thrace under Lysimachus and Macedonia under Antipater and later Antigonus. These Hellenistic kingdoms dominated these lands for the next two to three hundred years. During this time Judah lay between Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria and between 323 BC and 166 BC its possession was hotly contested. From about 175 BC when Antiochus Epiphanes came to the Syrian throne the Jews suffered many religious and military outrages. These led to the Maccabean revolt in 166 BC led by the priest Matthias and his sons who defeated the Syrians in a series of battles securing the Jews independence. The Maccabees Judas Jonathan and Simon and then the Hasmonean dynasty ruled Judah until Roman dominance under Pompey overcame it in 63 BC. This march of history set the stage for the birth of Christ born late in the reign of Herod the Great an Idumean client king of Rome. During this time the religion of the Jews had calcified into a judgmental law obsessed distortion of the way of life revealed by God in the Old Testament. It had also splintered into several major factions among them the Sadducees Pharisees and Zealots with which Jesus contended during His ministry. Because of the prophecies many from the Minor Prophets the Jews were awaiting the arrival of the Messiah but due to their many misunderstandings when He came His own did not receive Him.

Chronicles was written post exile in the late fourth century bc around the time of Alexander the Great. This places the writing in the Greek period in intertestamental history. The chronicler summarizes the lessons of Israelite history from the perspective of a Jew in the intertestamental period looking back at the time of the Old Testament.